Equal Rights Amendment - Resource Guide
This resource guide covers the Equal Rights Amendment
(ERA) from its
birth in 1923 to its death in 1983, to its afterlife from 1983 to the
present. The content focuses on pro-ERA activities, in particular the
activities of the National Woman's Party. Generally materials relate to
the ERA at the national level, although some focus on North Carolina.
All materials can be found at the University
of North Carolina, Chapel Hill libraries. The pathfinder is
intended for undergraduates and contains books and journals for
students doing general research as well as government documents and
manuscripts for those who want to conduct more detailed research.
Introduction - In 1920, soon after ratification of the 19th
Amendment, which
gave women the right to vote, the National Woman's Party and its
leader, Alice Paul, decided that a constitutional amendment granting
equal rights to women was the next step in liberating women. The Equal
Rights Amendment (ERA) was first introduced to Congress in 1923.
Although the amendment gained support in the 1930's and 1940's, until
the late 1960's the National Woman's Party was the main advocate of the
amendment. Many organizations, especially labor and women's
organizations, initially opposed the amendment because they feared it
would end protective labor legislation for women. In the late 1960's
and early 1970's, numerous women's organizations, in particular the
National Organization for Women (NOW) advocated for the amendment. Both
houses of Congress finally passed the amendment in 1972 and sent it to
the states for ratification. In order for the amendment to be added to
the Constitution, three fourths of states had to ratify the amendment
by 1979. By 1979, thirty-five of the thirty-eight needed states
ratified the amendment and the deadline for ratification was extended
to 1982. However, the amendment ultimately failed because no other
states ratified it. Women's organizations are still advocating for
passage of the ERA.
Library of Congress Subject Headings
- Equal Rights Amendment
- Constitutional Amendments
- Equality before the law
- Sex discrimination against women--Law and Legislation
- Women's rights
- Women--Legal status, laws, etc.--United States
Reference Books
Howard, Angela M. and Frances M. Kavenik, ed., Handbook of
American Women's History, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications, Inc., 2000.
UNC Davis Library Reference Row 23 HQ 1410 .H36 2000
Book is a good introduction to the field of women's history. Includes
entries about the Equal Rights Amendment and the National Woman's
Party. The Equal Rights Amendment entry discusses why it took so long
for the Equal Rights Amendment to gain national attention.
Pardo, Thomas C., ed., The National Woman's Party Papers,
1913-1974: A Guide to the Microfilm Edition. Sanford, NC:
Microfilming Corporation of America, 1979.
UNC Davis Library Reference Row 38 Z 7965 .N37
An excellent guide to primary sources about National Woman's Party's
Equal Rights Amendment work. Contains a detailed timeline of National
Woman's Party activities and lists contents of microfilm collection.
Includes a description of arrangement of the papers, complete and brief
reel lists, an index of important correspondence, and background
information.
Schenken, Suzanne O'Dea. From Suffrage to the Senate: An
Encyclopedia of American Women in Politics. 2 vols. Santa Barbara:
ABC-CLIO, 1999.
UNC Davis Library Reference Row 23 HQ 1236.5 .U6 S32 1999
Volume 1 contains an alphabetical index of entries in both volumes and
page numbers of primary sources, as well as an index of entries
arranged by category. Entries include see also and references. The
eight page entry for Equal Rights Amendment provides a comprehensive
history of the amendment. Also includes articles about state equal
rights amendments, ERAmerica, National Woman's Party, National
Organization for Women, and Alice Paul.
Tierney, Helen, ed., Women's Studies Encyclopedia. 3 vols.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999.
UNC Davis Library Reference Row 23 HQ 1115 .W645 1999
This three volume set contains multiple entries that describe various
aspects of the Equal Rights Amendment. Equal Rights Amendment entry by
Melissa Hausman contains an excellent outline of the ideology and legal
issues of the ERA and includes references for further reading. This
encyclopedia contains a detailed index.
Weatherford, Doris. American Women's History. New York:
Prentice Hall General Reference, 1994.
UNC Davis Library Reference Row 23 HQ 1115. W4 1994
Equal Rights Amendment entry provides a good discussion of initial
opposition to the amendment. Woman's Party entry describes the party's
shortcomings. The article about Alice Paul is negative and downplays
her work after the passage of the 19th Amendment. Contains brief
article about the National Organization for Women. This book does not
have an index.
Equal Rights Amendment Project. The Equal Rights Amendment: A
Bibliographic Study / compiled by the Equal Rights Amendment
Project; Anita Miller, project director ; Hazel Greenberg, editor and
compiler. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1976.
UNC Davis Library Stacks Floor 6 KF 4758 .A1 E6
The Equal Rights Amendment Project was a national resource center on
the equal rights issue. The book was published before the end of the
ratification process. Materials are divided into: Congressional
Publications; Other Government Publications; Pamphlets, Brochures,
Reports, Papers, and Other Documents; and Periodical Material.
Excellent table of contents makes it easy to find the listing for a
narrow publication type, such as House of Representatives' hearings.
Bibliography includes 5800 entries Entries are not annotated. The book
has a detailed introduction, an author index, and an organization index.
Feinberg, Renee. The Equal Rights Amendment: An Annotated
Bibliography of the Issues, 1976-1985, Bibliographies and Indexes
in Women's Studies, Number 3. New York: Greenwood Press, 1986.
UNC Davis Library Stacks Floor 6 KF 4758 .A1 F45 1986
Continues the Equal Rights Amendment Project's bibliography. Instead of
grouping materials by type, it groups them by subject. Subjects are:
Public Opinion and Party Politics; Federal and State Interpretations of
the Equal Rights Amendment; Employment; Education; Family and Religion;
The Military; Ratification Efforts; Boycott, Extension, and Rescission;
Defeat; Television News Coverage; After 1982. Many entries are
annotated. Book also includes an introduction: "The Equal Rights
Amendment as a Mainstream Political Issue", an organizational resources
appendix, including a list of ERA supporters as of 1978 , an author
index, and a subject index.
Huls, Mary Ellen. United States Government Documents on Women,
1800-1990: A Comprehensive Bibliography. Vol. 1, Social Issues,
Bibliographies and Indexes in Women's Studies, Number 17. Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press, 1993.
UNC Davis Library Reference Row 38 Z 7964 .U49 H85 1993 v. 1
Approximately fifty pages of this book contain citations about Equal
Rights Amendment in several categories. Some citations are annotated.
An excellent resource for researchers interested in government
documents pertaining to the Equal Rights Amendment.
Krichmar, Albert (assisted by Virginia Carlson Smith and Ann E.
Wiederrecht). The Women's Movement in the Seventies: An
International English-Language Bibliography. Metuchen, NJ: The
Scarecrow Press, 1977.
UNC Davis Library Reference Row 38 Z 7961 .K74
Entries listed under Equal Rights Amendment in the index. The book
includes over 50 citations from 1970-1975. Mostly magazine articles and
Congressional hearings. Some citations are annotated. ERA entries are
scattered throughout the bibliography which makes it more difficult to
use.
Krichmar, Albert (assisted by Barbara Case, Barbara Silver, Ann E.
Wiederrecht). The Women's Rights Movement in the United States,
1848-1970: A Bibliography and Source Book. Metuchen, NJ: The
Scarecrow Press, 1972.
UNC Davis Library Reference Row 38 Z7964 .U49 K75
Contains seven pages of annotated citations of pro- and anti-ERA
writings from 1924 to 1971, most of which are articles in periodicals.
The list is certainly not comprehensive, but a select list of articles
from popular and lesser known periodicals.
Rutherford, Barbara. The Women's Movement: References and
Resources. New York: G.K. Hall and Co., 1996.
UNC Davis Library. Reference Row 23 HQ 1236.5 .U6 R936 1996
This book has an excellent annotated bibliography of thirty books and
journal articles that discuss various aspects of ERA. Books and journal
articles were written both during and after the process.
Becker, Susan D. The Origins of the Equal Rights Amendment:
American Feminism between the Wars. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press,
1981.
UNC Davis Library Stacks Floor 5 HQ 1426 .B393
Written before the end of the ratification process. Author looks at the
history of ERA. She examines the origins of the ERA, National Woman's
Party activities, why people supported ERA or opposed it, and what the
American feminist movement during the 1920's and 1930's was like.
Berry, Mary Frances. Why ERA Failed: Politics, Women's Rights,
and the Amending Process of the Constitution. Bloomington, IN:
Indiana University Press, 1986.
UNC Davis Library Stacks Floor 6 KF 4758 .B45 1986
Berry begins by discussing the process of amending the Constitution,
then examines the progress of several proposed amendments: income tax,
prohibition, woman suffrage, and child labor. She compares ERA to these
previous amendments and concludes that ERA failed because "supporters
did too little, too late of what is required for ratification of a
substantive proposal".
Boles, Janet K. The Politics of the Equal Rights Amendment:
Conflict and the Decision Process. New York: Longman, Inc., 1979.
UNC Davis Library Stacks Floor 5 HQ 1426 .B68
The author conducted a case study in Texas, Georgia, and Illinois to
determine whether the community conflict and traditional interest group
politics models were applicable to ERA ratification politics. The book
was written before the ratification process ended. The author wanted to
find out why the ERA, which was popular, had such a difficult time
being ratified by the states.
Eisler, Riane Tennenhaus. The Equal Rights Amendment Handbook.
New York: Avon Books, 1978.
UNC Davis Library Stacks Floor 5 HQ 1426 .E4
This is a great primary source. A detailed how-to manual for people
interested in getting the ERA ratified in the three remaining states.
It was written during the ratification process by an ERA advocate and
lawyer who consulted with many activists. One of the author's main
purposes was to correct misperceptions of the amendment. The "Strategy
Guide and Action Checklist" is especially interesting for people
studying activism.
Mansbridge, Jane J. Why We Lost the ERA. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1986.
UNC Davis Library Stacks Floor 5 HQ 1236.5 .U6 M37 1986
Mansbridge was a participant in the ratification struggle and studied
it when she realized it would fail and after ratification failed. She
argues that the American public did not want a substantial change in
gender roles and that the Supreme Court would probably not take
advantage of the amendment. She argues that proponents were unwilling
to compromise because they were ideologically committed to equality.
Mathews, Donald G. and Jane Sherron DeHart. Sex, Gender, and the
Politics of ERA: A State and the Nation. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1990.
UNC Davis Library Stacks Floor 5 HQ 1236.5 .U6 M38 1990.
The authors studied the ratification process in North Carolina, but
argue that North Carolina is representative of the nation. They argue
that the conflict over ratification is about gender. The text begins
with a narrative of the history of ERA and the second half examines the
feelings of pro- and anti-ERA women and the North Carolina General
Assembly.
Steiner, Gilbert Y. Constitutional Inequality: The Political
Fortunes of the Equal Rights Amendment. Washington, D.C.: Brookings
Institution, 1985.
UNC Davis Library Stacks Floor 6 KF 4758 .S73 1985
A study of why ERA was not ratified. Steiner focuses on the period from
1971 to 1982. The author, a senior fellow in the Governmental Studies
program of the Brookings institution, concludes that ERA failed because
advocates missed their window of opportunity, which was only open for a
very brief period of time.
Arrington, Theodore S. and Patricia A. Kyle. "Equal Rights
Amendment Activists in North Carolina". Signs: Journal of Women in
Culture and Society. (Spring 1978): 666-680.
UNC Davis Library Stacks Floor 5 HQ 1101 .S5
Two political scientists examine characteristics of ERA activists in
North Carolina. They looked at "political activity, political
attitudes, personality characteristics, socioeconomic status (SES),
religion, social cross-pressures, geography, and parental influences"
of ERA and anti-ERA activists. They concluded that ERA activists in
North Carolina were similar to party elites, while anti-ERA activists
were dissimilar to party elites.
Marrilley, Suzanne M. "Towards a New Strategy for the Era: Some
Lessons from the American Woman Suffrage Movement". Women &
Politics 9, no. 4 (1989)
UNC Davis Library Stacks Floor 5 HQ1236 .W63 v. 9 1989
The author argues that future leaders of ERA ratification efforts can
learn lessons from the American suffragists of the early 1900's.
Article includes a review of why ERA failed and a summary of the United
States woman suffrage movement.
The Proposed Equal Rights Amendment to the United States
Constitution Discussed Pro & Con. Congressional Digest.
Special issue 22, no. 4. (1943).
UNC Davis Library Stacks Floor 6. JK1 .C65 v. 22 1943
An excellent primary source. Contains a legislative history of the
ERA's first twenty years in Congress, an article by the National
Woman's Party which answers common questions about the amendment, and
short articles in support and opposition of the amendment. Authors of
pro and con articles include writing in support: Alice Paul, U.S.
Senator Hattie W. Caraway, U.S. Representative Margaret C. Smith, Pearl
Buck, and Katharine Hepburn; and writing in opposition: Carrie Chapman
Catt, American Association of University Women, National Council of
Catholic Women, and the National League of Women Voters.
Slavin, Sarah, ed., The Equal Rights Amendment: The Politics and
Process of Ratification of the 27th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
Special double issue, Women & Politics 2 nos.1 and 2 (1982).
UNC Davis Library Stacks Floor 5 HQ 1236 .W63 v. 2 1982
When this collection of articles was published, it was clear that the
Equal Rights Amendment would not be ratified. Articles explore
attitudes of women state legislators toward ERA, factors influencing
state legislative responses to ERA, political ideology of opponents and
proponents, a case study of coalition politics, and an examination of
the influence of campaign contributions on ERA ratification in Illinois.
Huls, Mary Ellen. United States Government Documents on Women,
1800-1990: A Comprehensive Bibliography. Vol. 1, Social Issues,
Bibliographies and Indexes in Women's Studies, Number 17. Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press, 1993.
UNC Davis Library Reference Row 38 Z 7964 .U49 H85 1993 v. 1
An excellent bibliography. Index includes entry for Equal Rights
Amendment. Book contains citations for a variety of government
documents about various aspects of the Equal Rights Amendment.
National Woman's Party Papers, 1913-1974 [microfilm] Glen
Rock, N.J. : Microfilming Corporation of America, 1977-1978.
UNC Davis Library Microforms Collection Microfilm Call Number : 1-2162
Microfilm includes copies of all ERA resolutions introduced into
Congress and several Congressional hearing transcripts.
United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. Equal
rights for men and women : hearings before a subcommittee of the
Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, Seventy-fifth
Congress, third session, on S. J. Res. 65, a joint resolution proposing
an amendment to the Constitution of the United States relative to equal
rights for men and women ... February 7, 8, 9, and 10, 1938.
Washington, DC : GPO, 1938.
UNC Davis Library Government Documents Y 4.J 89/2:Eq 2/4
Extensive list of testifiers includes: representative of League of
Women Voters (opposes); Carrie Chapman Catt, president of National
Women Suffrage Association (opposes); representative of National
Women's Trade Union League (opposes); American Federation of Labor
(opposes); representative of National Woman's Party (supports).
United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. Equal
rights amendment : Hearing before a Subcommittee of the Committee on
the Judiciary, United States Senate, seventy-ninth Congress, first
session, on S. J. Res. 61, a joint resolution proposing an amendment to
the Constitution of the United States relative to equal rights for men
and women. September 28, 1945. Washington, DC : GPO, 1945.
UNC Davis Library Government Documents Y 4.J 89/2:EQ 2/5
Many more supporters testified at this hearing. Transcript includes:
letter of support from then Senator Harry S. Truman (dated 4/20/1944);
letter in support from 28 governors; list of organizations in
opposition; and testimony from National Woman's Party representatives;
Mary Church Terrell, National Association of Colored Women (support);
National Women's Trade Union League (opposed); Congress of Industrial
Organizations (opposed); American Civil Liberties Union (opposed).
United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. Equal
rights 1970 : hearings, Ninety-first Congress, second session, on S.J.
Res. 61 and S.J. Res. 231, proposing an amendment to the Constitution
of the United States relative to equal rights for men and women.
September 9, 10, 11, and 15, 1970. Washington, D.C. : GPO, 1970.
UNC Davis Library Government Documents Y 4 .J 89 /2 :Eq 2 /6 1970-2
Hearings focused on legal ramifications of amendment. Senator Ervin of
North Carolina, a staunch opponent of ERA, presided. According to him,
the House did not hold hearings on the amendment and previous Senate
hearings did not explore legal ramifications for states and the federal
government. Ervin inserted speeches, letters, and newspaper articles
that supported his opinion into the record. Testifiers included
representatives of NOW, law professors, a representative of the
Democratic National Committee, and Alice Paul.
United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary.
Subcommittee on the Constitution. Equal rights amendment extension
: hearings before the Subcommittee on the Constitution of the Committee
on the Judiciary, United States Senate, Ninety-fifth Congress, second
session, on S.J. Res. 134 ... August 2, 3, and 4, 1978. Washington,
DC: GPO, 1979.
UNC Davis Library Government Documents Y 4.J 89/2:Eq 2/7
Detailed table of contents includes: proposed legislation,
chronological lists of witnesses, alphabetical list of witnesses and
materials submitted. Testifiers include: Ruth Bader Ginsburg (pro),
AFL-CIO (support); Sen. Sam Ervin (opposed).
See also: listing for Lexis/Nexis Congressional Universe in
Databases
section below.
Sam J. Ervin Papers, Subgroup A: Senate Records #3847A, Southern
Historical Collection, Wilson Library, University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill.
Finding aid available at: http://www.lib.unc.edu/mss/inv/htm/03847A.html
U.S. Senator Ervin was one of the primary opponents of the Equal Rights
Amendment.
Equal Rights Amendment materials contained in folders 1328, 1631,
9413-9434, 10344-10354, 11298-11317, 12472-12482, 13250-13251,
13650-13658, 13659-13662, 13663, 13664-13666.
Sam J. Ervin Papers, Subgroup B: Private Papers #3847B, Southern
Historical Collection, Wilson Library, University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill.
Finding aid available at: http://www.lib.unc.edu/mss/inv/htm/03847B.html
Folders 659 to 662 contain his speeches about the ERA. Subject folders
882 to 902 contain documents pertaining to the ERA from 1975 to 1985.
National Woman's Party Papers, 1913-1974 [microfilm] Glen Rock, N.J.
: Microfilming Corporation of America, 1977-1978.
UNC Davis Library Microforms Collection Microfilm Call Number : 1-2162
Comprehensive collection of National Woman's Party papers includes
correspondence organized by date, meeting minutes, legal papers,
financial records, printed materials, photographs, World Woman's Party
Papers, and a complete collection of all Equal Rights Amendments
introduced in Congress, as well as some Congressional hearing
transcripts.
Martha C. McKay Papers (#4856), Southern Historical Collection,
Wilson Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
Finding aid available at: http://www.lib.unc.edu/mss/inv/htm/04856.html
According to the finding aid, McKay was the founder of the North
Carolina Women's Political Caucus and the National Women's Political
Caucus. Speech files contain speeches she gave in support of the Equal
Rights Amendment, correspondence files relate to the ERA, and subject
folders 25 to 29 contain ERA related documents.
Susie Sharp Papers (#4898), Southern Historical Collection, Wilson
Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
UNC Wilson Library Manuscripts Department. Southern Historical
Collection.
Finding aid available at: http://www.lib.unc.edu/mss/inv/htm/04898.html
According to the collection's finding aid, Sharp opposed the Equal
Rights Amendment, even though she was a woman in a position of power.
She was concerned that women would lose special protections if the
Equal Rights Amendment was ratified. Folders 71 to 76 and 851 contain
Equal Rights Amendment documents.
Gladys Avery Tillett Papers #4385, Southern Historical Collection,
Wilson Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
Finding aid available at: http://www.lib.unc.edu/mss/inv/htm/04385.html
According to the finding aid, Tillett was an Equal Rights Amendment
supporter since the 1920's, who became increasingly involved toward the
end of the process, and was president of the North Carolina chapter of
E.R.A. United in 1974 and 1975. Folders 1025 to 1042 contain ERA
materials.
GenderWatch
A full-text database of journals, conference proceedings, magazines,
newsletters, and other publications about issues pertaining to women.
UNC Chapel Hill students can access the database at http://eresources.lib.unc.edu/eid/.
A key word search for ERA produced thousands of hits.
Lexis/Nexis Congressional Universe
A searchable index of Congressional publications and other government
documents. Some citations include abstracts and full text of some
documents is available. UNC Chapel Hill students can access the
database at http://eresources.lib.unc.edu/eid/.
Enter Women's Rights in the subject search box to find ERA documents,
including committee reports and committee hearing transcripts.
ERA Campaign Network. http://www.ERACampaign.net/
Website of a network of activists who are using a "3-state strategy" to
get the ERA ratified in three of the fifteen states that have not
ratified it yet. Site includes an explanation of the strategy and why
the amendment is still needed, as well as contact information, links,
and a newsletter.
ERA Summit. The Equal Rights Amendment. http://www.equalrightsamendment.org/
The Alice Paul Institute and the ERA task force of the National Council
of Women's Organizations are still advocating for ratification of the
ERA. Their site includes status of current ERA legislation, a list of
states that have not ratified ERA, short history of the ERA, a list of
supporters, a description of their strategy, and an FAQ.
National Organization for Women. "Constitutional Equality
Amendment." National Organization for Women. http://www.now.org/issues/economic/cea/
NOW is working for passage of an amendment that is less open to
interpretation by the states and courts than the original ERA and that
protects more rights, including lesbian and gay rights. Site features
an ERA history, FAQ, and an organizing kit.
Center for the Historical Study of Women and Gender at the State
University of New York at Binghamton. "Who Won the Debate Over the
Equal Rights Amendment in the 1920's?" Women and Social Movements
in the United States, 1775 to 2000. http://womhist.binghamton.edu/era/doclist.htm
An excellent web page. The author selected documents that illustrate
the ERA debate in the 1920's, transcribed the full text of the
documents, and wrote introductions that explain each document's
significance. The page is broken into four sections: Arguments by
Supporters of the ERA, Published Debates between the Two Sides,
Anti-ERA Arguments, and The Debate Continued in the 1990's.
Created by Emily Weiss